How to Represent Your BACB Certification Status


How to Represent Your BACB Certification Status thumbnail

An ID badge with a picture of a woman's face.

What’s in a name? When it comes to representing your certification status, the answer is everything.

At some point, you’ve heard us say “Be sure to properly represent your BACB certification status.” But what does that mean? What’s the “proper” way to do it? That’s what we plan to answer in this blog, but here’s the gist of it:

When you refer to your BACB certification, you must refer to its status—whether active, inactive, or somewhere in between—accurately.

It might surprise you how often this comes up in day-to-day life. You refer to your certification status when chatting with friends about your current studies or career. It’s mentioned when you work with peers, clients, parents/guardians, and employers in classrooms and clinical settings. You write it on your resume, job applications, and billing authorizations. It even crops up when you’re training, supervising, or giving lectures.

Two resumes, an envelope, and a billing authorization.

So, here’s another question for you, one that has echoed through school halls and study rooms for centuries: Why does this matter? The truth is that misrepresentation can have real-life consequences, even if done accidentally. In just a minute, we’ll outline how to accurately represent your certification status, but first, we need to discuss why it’s so important:

  • Protecting consumers: Imagine that you’re an RBT applicant. You completed your 40-hour training, studied the materials, and scheduled your exam. Believing that you’ll soon pass, you put that you’re an “RBT Pending Examination” on your resume, and you get a job. Now you’re working with a client one-on-one, but you’re not certified. What if you don’t pass the exam? Uh oh. This is just one example of how misrepresentation can open a can of worms that’s potentially dangerous for you, your employer, and most importantly, your client.
  • Adhering to BACB ethics requirements: As you know, all BACB applicants and certificants are bound by a code of ethics. These codes mandate that behavior analysts and technicians represent themselves accurately, and a violation could put your eligibility or certification at risk. For the details, check out what standard 2.08 of the Ethics Code for Behavior Analysts and standard 3.07 of the RBT Ethics Code (2.0) have to say about misrepresentation.
  • Protecting the value of your certification: All BACB certification marks are registered with the United States Patent and Trademark Office (among other jurisdictions), and it’s crucial that they’re used correctly. As we mentioned in the July 2021 BACB Newsletter, if we fail to enforce our trademark rights, they could be jeopardized, and BACB certifications could lose their value. For specifics, check out the Guidelines for Use of BACB Intellectual Property.

How-To Guide

In this section, we’ll outline the dos and don’ts of representing your certification status. These guidelines are airtight to avoid any possible confusion, as confused clients and employers are not informed clients and employers. We hope that these examples make your life a little bit easier:

Status Guidelines
Active Certification

A check mark.Represent yourself in the following ways:

  • someone who has an RBT, BCBA, or BCBA-D certification
  • an RBT, BCaBA, BCBA, or BCBA-D certificant
  • a BACB certificant

As a reminder, you don’t need to use the registered trademark symbol when referring to your own certification (e.g., RBT®).

Applicant

A check mark.Represent yourself as someone working toward national certification.

An X mark.Do not represent yourself in the following ways:

  • someone pending BACB certification
  • an RBT, BCaBA, or BCBA candidate
  • someone who is RBT, BCaBA, or BCBA trained
  • someone who has passed their competency assessment
  • someone who has completed their 40-hour training
Inactive Certification (e.g., on voluntary inactive status, no supervisor)

An X mark.Do not represent yourself as someone who has an active RBT, BCaBA, BCBA, or BCBA-D certification.

As a reminder, those on voluntary inactive status and those who hold an RBT or BCaBA certification but do not have a qualified supervisor on record with the BACB must indicate that their certification is inactive if they need to refer to their certification. For more information, check out the Inactive Policy in the RBT, BCaBA, or BCBA Handbook.

Bonus Tips

  • Don’t say that the BACB licensed you: It’s important to note that there’s a difference between the BACB, which is a credentialing organization, and a licensure board. The BACB provides certifications, not licenses. If you practice in the US and want to learn more, visit the US Licensure of Behavior Analysts web page.
  • Don’t say that the BACB is your employer: Please don’t represent yourself as a BACB employee, as it’s a violation of our Terms of Use. We see this most frequently on social media platforms like LinkedIn. Instead, list your certification in LinkedIn’s License or Certification section.
  • Don’t modify BACB trademarks: In the past, we’ve seen some funny takes on BACB certification marks, such as “BCBA-CS” for “BCBA consulting supervisor.” While we must give points for creativity, BACB trademarks aren’t a choose your own adventure. Please only use them as intended: RBT, BCaBA, BCBA, and BCBA-D.

How to Address Misrepresentation

A man and a woman having a conversation and gesturing with their hands.

Now that you know what to do and why, let’s talk about misrepresentation in the real world: What should you do if you see someone misrepresenting their certification status? What if that person is you?

The first step is to gently correct if possible. If the issue persists, the second step is to report it to all relevant entities (e.g., BACB, licensure board).

You Misrepresented Your Status

Let’s say that while reading this blog, you realized that you’ve been misrepresenting your certification status. Don’t panic! If you can, fix the error. Change your social media bio, revise your resume, contact the website’s administrator, shout your true certification status from the mountain tops—whatever you need to do. If you can’t fix the error yourself, tell your supervisor (if you have one), document your attempts to correct it, and self-report to the BACB through the Ethics Self-Reporting Form. Don’t forget to include your documentation in the submission.

Someone Else Misrepresented Their Status

If you notice that someone else is misrepresenting their certification status, follow the same procedure. First, give them an opportunity to fix the error. Here’s one way to begin that conversation:

A woman saying

“I hope you’re doing well. I just checked out your social media profile, and I’m so excited to see that you’re in a behavior analysis program. I’m not sure if you’re aware, but you can’t represent yourself as a BCBA (or a BCBA in training) until you’ve passed the exam, as it might be confusing. The BACB has clear guidelines on what’s acceptable. Can I share some resources with you, or could we hop on a call to chat about it?”

You don’t have to repeat this word-for-word, but it’s a good start.

If you aren’t comfortable reaching out to this person, or if they fail to fix the error, please report them to the BACB through the Reporting Infringement or Misuse Form. We’ll take it from there.


In summary, to represent your certification status properly, you should follow our guidelines and be as clear as possible when communicating with others. Taking misrepresentation seriously benefits your clients, your employer, and you. If you see misrepresentation in the wild, please take all appropriate steps to address it.

Thank you for taking the time to read this blog post. Your willingness to learn more about these topics helps uphold the integrity your certification. If you have any questions or concerns, please get in touch through the Contact Us Form.

5 Must-Know RBT Application Tips

The updated RBT application process goes into effect on January 2, 2025. This blog will be updated when the process goes into effect.

Clocks with a red banner that says Applications

Whether you’re submitting an RBT Initial Certification Application or completing your annual RBT Renewal Application, we understand that time is of the essence. We want you to have all of the information you need for a quick and painless application experience. That way, you’ll feel well-equipped to move forward with your application and to achieve your goals as an RBT.

So, before you click Submit, read ahead for tips on getting started, creating and/or maintaining your BACB account, thoroughly reviewing your documentation, and understanding the key differences between an RBT Initial Certification Application and an RBT Renewal Application.

Tip #1: Consult the RBT Handbook

For all RBT applicants, new or renewing, the RBT Handbook should be your go-to resource. In it, you’ll find helpful information about eligibility requirements, the application process, and requirements for renewing your RBT certification. We also suggest reviewing the handbook with your RBT Supervisor or RBT Requirements Coordinator, as they can help answer any questions you might have.

Tip #2: Give yourself enough time to prepare

This is vital! Because there are many moving parts in the application process, giving yourself ample time to prepare is one of the best things you can do. If you plan accordingly, you’ll have all the time you need to carefully review your materials, which may prevent application errors that cause processing delays beyond the standard 2-week timeline. This is especially important if you’re submitting an RBT Renewal Application. For specifics, check out the following application timelines:

Wondering when you’ll hear back about your application? You can see current application processing times on the Application Processing Updates web page.

Tip #3: Create and/or maintain you BACB account

Your BACB account is the doorway to your certification, and that certification belongs to you and only you. That said, here are a few things to keep in mind when creating and/or maintaining your BACB account:

  • Create your BACB account yourself. Don’t have anyone, including your future RBT Supervisor or employer, create your account on your behalf.
  • Don’t use your work or school email address when signing up. If you use your work or school email address to sign up, you may lose access to your BACB account if you lose access to that email address in the future. It’s always best to sign up using a personal email address.
  • Reach out to the BACB for assistance. If you lose access to your account for any reason, let us know through the Contact Us Form, and we’ll help you access your existing account. Please do not create a new account.
  • Keep all of your information current. If your address, name, or other personal information changes, be sure to update your account right away.
  • Add bacb.com to your email contacts and list of safe senders. This way, you can ensure that you’ll receive important messages. Also, be sure to check your spam folder periodically, especially if you’re waiting to hear from us.

Tip #4: Carefully review your documentation

When you’re eager to submit an application, it’s easy to accidentally forget a key piece, like a document, attestation, or signature. The problem is that a missing piece can make the application process not-so-easy. If documentation is missing, incorrect, or does not indicate that you meet the necessary requirements, you’ll experience delays in processing times, as the review process starts over each time you resubmit.

To avoid delays as best you can, consider reaching out to your current or future RBT Supervisor or RBT Requirements Coordinator for additional support—and make sure to review these essential documentation requirements:

RBT Initial Certification Application RBT Renewal Application
  • All documentation must be uploaded in the RBT tab of your BACB account. Multipage documents must be combined into a single file, as each section of the application only allows 1 attachment.
  • All documentation must be correct and complete (i.e., all necessary boxes are checked; all required dates, signatures, and pages are included).
  • The RBT 40-Hour Training Certificate must include this statement: This training program was based on the RBT Task List (2nd ed.) and is designed to meet the 40-hour training requirement for RBT certification. The program is offered independent of the BACB.
  • The RBT Initial Competency Assessment must be completed within 90 days of submitting your application payment, and the assessor (and/or assistant assessor) must:
    • complete all applicable fields,
    • initial all applicable tasks,
    • indicate how each task was assessed,
    • include their printed name and correct certification number, and
    • sign according to the Acceptable Signatures Policy.
  • All documentation must be uploaded in the RBT Renewal tab of your BACB account. Multipage documents must be combined into a single file, as each section of the application only allows 1 attachment.
  • All documentation must be correct and complete (i.e., all necessary boxes are checked; all required dates, signatures, and pages are included).
  • The RBT Renewal Competency Assessment must be completed no more than 45 days before your RBT certification expiration date, and the assessor (and/or assistant assessor) must:
    • complete all applicable fields,
    • initial all applicable tasks,
    • indicate how each task was assessed,
    • include their printed name and correct certification number, and
    • sign according to the Acceptable Signatures Policy.
Note: If the documentation that shows you have met the education requirements is in a language other than English, it must be translated into English using an official translation service. Note: There are 2 versions of the competency assessment. Please refer to the label at the top of the document to ensure that you’re using the correct one. Initial Competency Assessments will not be accepted for a renewal application, as Renewal Competency Assessments require the completion of 5 tasks instead of 3.

Tip #5: Sit back and relax

When it comes to submitting an RBT Initial Certification Application or RBT Renewal Application, we understand how important it is for you to get an approval as soon as possible so that you can take the next steps in your RBT journey. By following this guidance and enlisting the help of your supervisor, you’ll feel confident that you can submit an approvable application in no time. And don’t forget—we’re rooting for you!

Thank you for taking the time to check out these pointers. For more RBT-related resources, visit our Registered Behavior Technician web page. For questions, please reach out via the Contact Us Form.

RBT Certification Updates

Inside the BACB: Episode 20

RBT Certification UpdatesIn this episode of Inside the BACB, Deputy CEO Dr. Melissa Nosik and Director of Certificant Services Dr. Molli Luke share recent RBT updates, including numerous tips and resources for training, applying, testing, supervising, and more.

You can find all of the BACB’s videos on our YouTube channel.

Tips for New Certificants

Tips for New Certificants

First things first—congratulations! You met your eligibility requirements, passed your examination, and earned your certification. You just successfully finished what some believe to be the hardest part of becoming an RBT, BCaBA, or BCBA.

But now you’re facing a whole new set of challenges, including maintaining your certification and assuming your new role. To help you start off on the right foot, here are a few tips for your first weeks as a certificant.

Tip #1: Review the contact information in your BACB account

When you earn your certification, it’s important to review your BACB account and update any outdated or incorrect information. Although the BACB strongly encourages applicants to review and update their contact information as changes occur, this tip is especially important once you pass your examination and earn your certification.

But why is this review so crucial?

For one, within 4–6 weeks of passing your BCBA or BCaBA examination, your official certificate will arrive at the mailing address listed in your BACB account—however outdated that address may be. So, to prevent a mailing mishap, be sure to update your home address. Also take care to review your name, phone number, and email address, as outdated or incorrect information in any of these fields may create a problem down the line.

Tip #2: Get familiar with the Certificant Registry

The Certificant Registry is a database that includes vital information about all BACB certificants, including their location; certification number, status, and activation/recertification date; disciplinary actions or sanctions, if any; and availability for supervision services. It’s a valuable resource for employers, service recipients, applicants, and certificants alike, so we recommend getting to know it a little bit better.

As a new certificant, you will not appear in the database immediately. Like your certificant number, which may take up to 24 hours to appear in your BACB account, your name may take up to 48 hours to appear in the Certificant Registry. At that point, your certification information will become public.

Once your information is public, potential employers and supervisors can use the Certificant Registry to verify your certification. You can also use the registry to find and contact supervisors in your area if or when necessary. But be careful—as stated earlier, if your address is not updated in your BACB account, the registry may not reflect your current location.

We encourage you to give the Certificant Registry a try—maybe even search your own name to see how you will appear to others!

Tip #3: Update your resume and curriculum vitae

This tip is as short and sweet as they come, but it’s important nonetheless: Don’t forget to list your new certification on your resume and/or curriculum vitae! Once you enter the working world, you’ll want to ensure that your new title—and all of the hard work that went into getting it—is reflected on paper for potential employers to see.

Tip #4: Research your state’s licensure requirements

If you are a BACB certificant who intends to practice in the United States, you must adhere to your state’s licensure requirements before practicing or billing. This tip may be the most crucial in this list, as ABA practitioners who practice without licensure in regulated states may face serious consequences, such as disciplinary actions against their certification or even incarceration.

Follow these steps to learn more:

  1. Visit our U.S. Licensure of Behavior Analysts web page.
  2. If your state is regulated, click on your state in the table to navigate to its regulatory board website.
  3. There, you can find detailed information about your state’s licensure requirements and applications, if necessary.

Tip #5: Establish a maintenance plan

“There’s no such thing as too early!” – Bird that got the worm

It never hurts to be prepared, which is why it’s a great idea to begin establishing a plan to meet the maintenance requirements for your certification as soon as possible. As an RBT, BCaBA, or BCBA, you must meet specific requirements and complete certain tasks before you are able to recertify. It’s helpful to keep those to-dos in mind and plan ahead to avoid a last-minute panic or, at worst, an expired certification.

To create a maintenance plan, find out the length of your recertification cycle, the continuing education (CE) requirements that you must meet, if any, and the tasks that you must complete within the 45-day period before your recertification date. Then, do your research! Visit the Continuing Education tab in your BACB account to find a summary of the continuing education units needed for your current certification cycle or review the RBT Renewal Competency Assessment Packet—maybe even mark your target milestones on a calendar or planning app.

To get started, check out the following table to see a basic overview of the current BACB maintenance requirements for each certification.

Overview of Maintenance Requirements
Certification Recertification Date CE Requirements Ongoing Requirements 45 Days Before Recertification Date
RBT 1 year from original certification date Not applicable
  • Abide by the RBT Ethics Code (2.0) and self-reporting requirements
  • Meet the ongoing supervision requirements
  • Complete a renewal competency assessment with a qualified assessor
  • Renew certification
BCaBA 2 years from original certification date
  • Complete 20 CEUs (4 in Ethics, 3 in Supervision if applicable)
  • Enter CEUs in your BACB account
  • Abide by BACB ethics and self-reporting requirements
  • Meet the ongoing supervision requirements
Recertify
BCBA/BCBA-D 2 years from original certification date
  • Complete 32 CEUs (4 in Ethics, 3 in Supervision if applicable)
  • Enter CEUs in your BACB account
Abide by BACB ethics and self-reporting requirements Recertify

For more detailed, in-depth information about current BACB maintenance requirements, please visit the RBT, BCaBA, or BCBA Handbook.

Tip #6: Check out the Resources tab in your BACB account

As a new BCBA or BCaBA, you have access to multiple behavior-analytic scholarly journals and databases. These journals and databases may be helpful resources for you as you integrate current research into your behavior-analytic practice activities—and the best part is that through your BACB account, they’re free!

We encourage you to take some time to explore the Resources tab, as spending time in behavior-analytic literature is one of the best ways to stay in the know about advancements in the field. In fact, in a profession that is rapidly advancing, your education will continue long after you pass your examination.

. . .

These six tips are not the end-all, be-all of your first weeks as a BACB certificant. No matter how thoroughly you plan and prepare, you will surely run into hiccups and roadblocks at one point or another. That’s simply the nature of doing something new. Even so, we hope that these tips help you more confidently assume your new role.

Thank you for your hard work and dedication to applied behavior analysis. We are so happy to have you as a certificant. Best of luck!

Tips for a Smooth RBT Certification Application

The updated RBT application process goes into effect on January 2, 2025. This blog will be updated when the process goes into effect.

Note: The information in this blog may be outdated. Please see the 5 Must-Know RBT Application Tips blog post for up-to-date information.

So, you’ve decided to take your career to the next level and pursue certification as a Registered Behavior Technician, or RBT.

Congratulations! We’re rooting for your success, so we’ve put together some tips that will make the RBT application process as quick and simple as possible.

Tip #1: Read the RBT Handbook in full


This isn’t your everyday Terms of Service agreement.

Before completing your RBT application, it’s important to carefully review the RBT Handbook in full. In fact, we suggest that you review the handbook with the person who will become your RBT Supervisor or RBT Requirements Coordinator, as they will also be involved in the application process.

The RBT Handbook is a vital resource for potential RBT applicants because, among other relevant information, it includes:

  • a detailed description of the requirements you must meet to become certified
  • an overview of the application process
  • the documents that are required when applying

The RBT Handbook should be your go-to resource when applying to sit for the RBT certification examination. If you take the time to review it in advance, you’ll become familiar with each requirement and every nitty-gritty detail, which can only mean one thing: smooth sailing ahead!

Tip #2: Create your BACB account yourself


We get by with a little help from our friends—just not while making our BACB accounts.

Be sure to create your BACB account yourself with your personal email address. Do not have anyone, including your future RBT Supervisor or employer, create your account on your behalf. Also refrain from using your work or school email address when signing up, as you may lose access to your BACB account if you lose access to that email address.

When you create your own BACB account with a personal email address, you will have full access to and control over your account when it’s time to renew your certification down the road. Your BACB account is the doorway to your certification, and that certification belongs to you and you alone!

Tip #3: Thoroughly review your application documentation


Don’t let these be your famous last words: “It’ll be fine. I don’t need to double check!”


Before you click submit, it’s important to double check that your application meets all the documentation requirements expected of RBT candidates. As stated earlier, it’s a good idea to review your application with your future RBT Supervisor. Another set of eyes will help ensure that all the documentation requirements are properly met.

Unfortunately, the BACB has been receiving a high volume of applications with documentation that fails to meet the proper requirements. Here are a few reminders based on the most frequent issues we’re seeing:

  • Upload the correct documents into the RBT application and make sure that all necessary pages are included.
  • Check that your RBT 40-hour training certificate includes this statement: “This training program was based on the RBT Task List (2nd ed.) and is designed to meet the 40-hour training requirement for RBT certification. The program is offered independent of the BACB.”
  • Complete the Initial Competency Assessment within 90 days of submitting your application payment. In this form, make sure that the assessor (and/or assistant assessor):
    • completes all applicable fields (e.g., your name, assessor’s name),
    • initials all applicable tasks,
    • indicates how each task was assessed, and
    • signs according to the Acceptable Signatures Policy.

Here are a few reminders that only apply in certain circumstances:

  • If the Responsible Assessor for your Initial Competency Assessment determined that the “with a client” waiver was applicable to you during the COVID-19 pandemic, please make sure to merge your COVID-19 attestation and Initial Competency Assessment into one PDF before submitting.
  • If the documentation that shows you have met the education requirements is in another language, please make sure to have it officially translated into English before submitting.

In the mad dash to submit your application, it’s easy to accidentally forget a document, statement, or signature. But, if information is missing from your application or if the provided documentation doesn’t indicate that you meet the necessary requirements, you may experience delays beyond the standard two-week processing time.

We recognize how important it is to move through the application process quickly so that you can become certified and move forward in your career. That’s why it’s vital to double check that your documentation is complete and meets the appropriate requirements for RBT candidates. That way, we can send you off to sit for the RBT examination as soon as possible!

To view current application processing times, please visit the Customer Service Updates page on the BACB’s website.

Tip #4: Hang in there


The path to certification can be stressful and difficult at times, but being fully prepared can ease the pressure. If you take this advice and reach out to your supervisor for additional support when you need it, the application process will feel relatively painless and far less daunting. We sincerely hope that these tips improve your RBT certification application experience. Best of luck, future RBT!

BCBA and BCaBA Applicants: 5 Tips for a Smoother Application Process

BCBA and BCaBA Applicants: 5 Tips for a Smoother Application Process

We get it: Life is short, time is precious, and waiting really is the hardest part. Particularly when you’ve got a lot riding on something, like your BACB certification exam. You want to know NOW whether you’re eligible to take the exam, and we want to tell you (really!). But we need your help.

The following five tips help pave the way for a smoother application process by giving us what we need when we need it so that we can review your application and required documentation as efficiently as possible. This means that we’ll be able to give you the answers you seek sooner rather than later.

Tip #1: Get your ducks in a row. Before you even think about applying for certification, take a step back and determine whether you meet all the eligibility requirements. Do you have the required degree? Did you complete a verified course sequence (VCS) and if so, do you know the VCS number? If you completed nonverified coursework (i.e., courses that are not in a VCS), do you have course content attestations? Have you double-checked the calculations on your Final Fieldwork Verification Forms (F&-FVFs)? Do you have the necessary signatures from the necessary people? Ask for help if you’re uncertain about your eligibility: Your supervisor or VCS coordinator are great resources. Or request a preliminary degree or coursework evaluation from us before applying. We’re happy to help!

Tip #2: All together now. Once you’re certain you meet all the eligibility requirements, get all your documents in order before submitting your application so that you have everything at your fingertips and aren’t scrambling for missing pieces at the 11th hour. We only review complete applications (i.e., the application itself, the application fee, and your supplemental documents) so if we notice that one of these things is missing, we have to pause the process and check with you to see where it is and when we’ll receive it. Getting everything in order before you start the process will make life easier, for all of us.

Tip #3: What’s in a name? Everything! Please, please, PLEASE make sure the name on your transcript and F-FVF(s) matches the name in your BACB account EXACTLY. If your name has changed, tell us and update your information in your BACB account. It’s also a good idea to include your BACB account number on everything you send to us as an additional means of identification. It’s simple: If we can’t verify who you are, we can’t process your application.

Tip #4: Can we all agree? Be sure the supervisor who signs your F-FVF(s) is the supervisor who can agree to the attestations you’ve made on your F-FVF(s). This is the supervisor who is listed on your supervision contract, and who meets all supervision requirements during the entire fieldwork timeframe you record on your F-FVF(s). And while we&’re talking F-FVFs, please don’t change information (i.e., cross out statements or insert new ones) on your F-FVF(s) once your supervisor has signed it/them. We have no way of knowing whether your supervisor has approved or verified the altered information. If you must make changes, we recommend completing a new form(s), having your supervisor sign it/them, and sending us a clean copy(ies). Oh, and you can always send us your F-FVF&(s) via email versus snail mail to speed up the process.

Tip #5: Make it official. We require a sealed official transcript or an e-transcript sent to us directly from your institution(s). Make sure your transcript(s) lists all required degrees and coursework. Please don’t send us a photocopy of your degree or (perish the thought!) the real thing. If you earned your degree from one school and completed your coursework at another, we need two transcript: one from each school. If you completed your degree and required coursework at the same school, one transcript showing both will do the trick.

While all this may seem pretty basic, you’d be surprised by some of the things people do when applying for certification (do we have stories!). Following these five simple tips will help smooth out and speed up our review of your application. And remember: Current application processing times, updates, and other news you need to know is available on our Customer Service Updates page. For specific instructions on applying for BACB certification, visit bacb.com and select the certification that applies to you.

All BACB blogs are intended for general information only. Readers should refer to bacb.com for the most up-to-date information regarding BACB policies, standards, and requirements as blog content does not replace or supersede this information. All BACB blogs are the property of the BACB and may not be commercially reproduced or edited in any medium.